1. Process models of curriculum Process-based approaches to curriculum theory are usually focused less on summative activity – the last grades, the end-point assessments, as well as the grading and achievements connected with them – than aided by the pathway which learners take though a program.

The place where a learner will be supported in an one-to-one situation because of identified certain learning difficulties, there could well be active engagement in what is usually to be covered into the sessions for maximum impact and usefulness of this support worker as being a resource.    

Though there could be a every day definition of ‘curriculum’ which we would take to reference the contents of a course, curriculum can shift meaning in accordance with context, and that the curriculum for a offered course is ready to accept reinterpretation also to being experienced in numerous methods, according to those contexts.  

which are the most prominent models of curriculum?

Curriculum studies is just a long-established part of pedagogical enquiry, and whole books can without difficulty be written about curricula in theory, and how theoretical and philosophical areas of education interact with the practical areas of teaching. This part explores the basic principles of three significant conceptualisations of curricula: curriculum as process, as product, so when praxis.

1. Process models of curriculum

Process-based approaches to curriculum theory are usually focused less on summative activity – the final grades, the end-point assessments, as well as the grading and achievements connected with them – than aided by the pathway which learners take though a program. For process-oriented thinkers, the journey could be the primary concern, rather than the destination. 

you might have come across phrases like «  »distance travelled » » (a measure of the improvement with time a learner shows) or «  »value added » » (often found in discussing the boosts provided to the qualitative areas of a educational experience) in teaching before (Tummons, 2012). Such terms are process-centric in that they have been regarding learners’ subjective experience of learning, and of qualitative measures of the educational experience. As such, there was, generally speaking terms, a qualitative impetus to process models of curricula that will be contrasted aided by the more quantitative focus of product-oriented models.

that’s not to state that process models of curriculum are not focused on the end results of learning, but that it is a pair of concerns which can be placed as being of secondary relevance compared to that of this actual learning activities on their own. This makes some sort of sense: if you undergo a year-long course, then what is the more essential: the last assessment, or the season spent studying to make the journey to that final point? Both are worth addressing and neither must be dismissed, but there is a logic towards the position that the course-long experience is of significance, and may be described as a priority of focus.

Process models originate with Laurence Stenhouse – in his 1975 book An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development, he argued that there were three aspects to curricula:

Stenhouse’s focus had been on curriculum development as learner-centric, having an additional give attention to the autonomy of this individual teacher in effecting learner development; curricula should therefore be maybe not overly prescriptive, and now have latitude built in to ensure diverse methodologies and assessments works extremely well at the educator’s discretion (Stenhouse, 1975). Maybe naturally, process-oriented conceptualisations are popular within education while they privilege the practice of teaching, and place a value on the professional judgement of this educator, while supporting the cognitive development of learners.https://medium.com/@vladimirtrofimov049/3-best-business-essay-samples-89565e1951d8

2. Product models of curriculum

the place where a process-centric conceptualisation of curriculum enquiry is centred regarding the holistic experience of the learner, and on the teacher’s role in supporting the pupil and their development, models of curriculum which are product-oriented are dedicated to destinations as opposed to on journeys. Indeed, alternative terms because of this form of approach include ‘objectives model’; central to product models of curricula are questions regarding success and to learner competencies after having completed the length of instruction.

A prominent early educationalist who is from the development of the item model as being a curriculum paradigm is Ralph Tyler. Tyler’s 1948 paper Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction asked four sets key questions which remain the bedrock of product-based curriculum enquiry:

Tyler argued that the greater amount of rigorous and clear the curriculum had been, the higher maybe it’s scrutinised to assess its effectiveness, as well as the more apparent the dilemmas which can result in underperformance in assessment terms could be.

There are numerous positives which is often connected with product models of curriculum. Achievements are very important, and clarity in curriculum design, plus in aims and objectives which lend on their own to measurable determination of their being satisfied or elsewhere implies that there may be data-driven analysis of this effectiveness or elsewhere of a length of instruction (or of its delivery by way of a particular institution/teacher). Outcomes-based measurement might be comparatively straightforward, in that an outcome either has or will not be met, or even a cohort is above or below the national average, nonetheless it inevitably downplays the value as well as the detail of a qualitative-informed analysis.

3. Praxis models of curriculum

Praxis, into the sense of critically-informed practice, is certainly a piece of scholastic and philosophical inquiry into education. Praxis-focused conceptualisations of curriculum focus on the notion that curricula were created and taught not simply out of unquestioning obedience, or through managerial diktat, but because you can find areas of teaching which accord aided by the individual’s philosophical or political attitudes to the entire world.

Teaching just isn’t value-free, as well as the curriculum may similarly be imbued with social and cultural roles that have moral significance. Sometimes these are more overt than others. A program in religious education may have curriculum elements which foster the respect of all of the faiths, as an example. That’s not to state that all teaching is driven by the imperative of setting and reinforcing values encoded into curricula, though there could be a piece with this to ones own teaching practice. Similarly, there could be components of a program to that your teacher may raise objections of just one type or another, and this may influence the ways in which that topic or position is introduced or discussed into the class room environment. The level to which this really is appropriate may depend on the niche, topic, and context of teaching (Kelly, 2009).

No-one would wish to be taught by a person who won’t have some form of personal enthusiasm or other investment within their subject as well as its communication to learners, plus in the support of developing those learners towards success in terms referable back once again to the curriculum.  

Alternatives and synthesis of models

You may believe that the three models of curriculum outlined in this part are not readily separated. You can find areas of product, praxis, and of process which may have usefulness to us as educators; each informs the educational journey, underpinning moral and cultural conditions, and outcomes of our learners. Nonetheless, by separating down different facets of enquiry into curriculum-related things, each one of these roles seeks to explore them in more detail, in addition to stressing the relevance of each and every aspect to us. These are not either/or choices to produce, but approaches which a individual teacher may privilege regarding a certain curriculum may realistically and pragmatically draw from each mode of analysis outlined above.

just why is it crucial that you develop and streamline curricula?

it really is maybe inescapable that curricula will change with time. For instance, in 2016, there was clearly controversy within the withdrawal of some A level programmes including history of art, archaeology, and classical civilisation courses at this level (Weale, 2016). There are numerous parameters to decisions for instance the one outlined above. There is an economic argument on one hand for cutting, and political and cultural arguments regarding the side of retaining the courses.

The the greater part of curriculum decisions are not made at the degree of course treatment, of course, but you can find multiple variables which might be at play. Some decisions may be straightforward, and reflect new knowledge, or the developing consensus on subject-related content during the time. Political considerations might be invoked; the development of curriculum strands fostering positive attitudes towards diversity, inclusiveness, and tolerance in civil society not merely reflect contemporary moral values, but also work to ensure that education is compliant with equality legislation. Economic parameters might suggest guidelines in education; not simply in providing the skills demanded by industry and commerce in the workforce, nevertheless the competencies in wider society which foster engagement because of the economic realities of that time period. Successive drives towards embedding key and functional numeracy and literacy skills into curricula were related back once again to industry demands for a literate and numerate workforce at all levels (Gatto and Moore, 2002).

Additionally, there are questions of relevance and of making education palatable to learners. Reading lists are often refreshed, as well as the primary texts studied in English classes at all levels consistently revised to offer what exactly is regarded as not really a grounding in literature and popular culture, but in addition a representation of society since it exists. Commercial interests may also play a part in curriculum design. Significantly more than ever before, learners are conceptualised as customers- the curriculum needs to be popular with prospective students, maybe not least when those prospective learners could be accepting loans to invest in their educational experience. 

Curricula are not live documents, nevertheless they have to be flexible and responsive with time towards the contexts in which that education experience is provided.

Bibliography

Gatto, J.T. and Moore, T. (2002) Dumbing us down: the hidden curriculum of compulsory schooling. 4th edn. Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers.

Kelly, A.V. (2009) The curriculum: theory and practice. 6th edn. London: SAGE Publications.

Oxford English Dictionary (2016) Definition: Curriculum. Offered by: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/curriculum (Accessed: 12 November 2016).

Schiro, M. (2012) Curriculum theory: conflicting visions and enduring concerns. 2nd edn. London: SAGE Publications.

Smith, M. (2013) Curriculum theory and practice. Offered by: http://infed.org/mobi/curriculum-theory-and-practice/#process (Accessed: 13 November 2016).

Stenhouse, L. (1975) An introduction to curriculum research and development. London: Heinemann Educational.

Tummons, J. (2012) Curriculum studies into the lifelong learning sector. 2nd edn. Exeter: Learning Matters.

Tyler, R. (1948) Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Offered by: http://blogs.ubc.ca/ewayne/files/2009/02/tyler_001.pdf (Accessed: 13 November 2016).

UNESCO (2016) Different meanings of ‘curriculum’. Offered by: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/strengthening-education-systems/quality-framework/technical-notes/different-meaning-of-curriculum/ (Accessed: 12 November 2016).

Weale, S. (2016) Scrapping of archaeology and classics a-levels criticised as ‘barbaric act’. Offered by: https://www.theguardian.com/education/2016/oct/17/scrapping-archeology-classics-a-levels-barbaric-tony-robinson (Accessed: 13 November 2016).

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Welcome to chapter 12 of the ‘Approaches to Education’ module. Chances are, you need to have pointed out that lots of the theories we’ve dissected throughout this module overlap notably with the other person, and that several are underpinned by similar a few ideas about education. Teaching in a class room might signify you might be utilising several different theories at one time. This chapter aims to examine where these theories intersect and to provide some discussion about how precisely this could work in practice.   

Goals because of this part

Objectives because of this part

Begin the Lecture

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Learning Objectives because of this Chapter

By the end with this chapter, you want you:

Historical Background

so that you can have a full comprehension of SEN, you should have a grasp of this historical back ground to the definition and attitudes towards those that experience learning difficulties. Educational practice was affected by different models of disability, the key two being the medical model as well as the social model.

Healthcare

The medical model regards disability as being a personal issue which includes its root in certain conditions, disabilities or health problems which is often improved through medical intervention or some kind of rehabilitation measure (Hedlund, 2009), instead of taking into consideration the needs of any one or band of folks who are affected (Burke and Cigno, 2000). Hedlund (2009) observes that this view of disability focuses purely regarding the dilemmas of each and every individual medical problem in order to formulate some type of diagnosis as to exactly how their dilemmas may be improved. This view is rooted into the some ideas put forward the 20th century which saw people viewing individuals purely into the light of these difficulties and their limits. Alfred Eicholz grouped needs into three certain types: mentally deficient, physically defective and/or epileptic and retarded. The education for the ‘mentally deficient’ had been provided away from their peers and main-stream schooling, usually in the united states where they learnt skills concerning practical farm work, in that it absolutely was thought which they were less likely to want to do any harm (Haskell and Barrett, 1993). This treatment resembles the method by which the containment of any contagion is approached, in that individuals were separated from society ( a type of quarantine) aided by the dilemma of disability being contained, thus reducing any harm (Hedlund, 2009). The ‘physically defective and/or epileptic’ were put on a strict, medically supervised diet in residential facilities, being trained basic life skills. Those that seemed physically healthy but less able than others were labelled as being ‘retarded’; these individuals were taught in special schools on a day-to-day basis, being given teaching and learning exercises which were built to help them to overcome their dilemmas to facilitate the joining of main-stream schools (Haskell and Barrett, 1993).

This model regards disability as preventing individuals’ ability to operate, as a results of medical issues or injuries. The extremely fact that terms such as ‘retarded’, ‘mentally deficient’ and ‘defective’ were used imply that individuals were for some reason broken and were in need of repair to be ‘normal’. It absolutely was believed that the normalising process could possibly be facilitated through training programmes or aids, and that an individual’s situation could possibly be improved by their practising, so that you can hone their abilities such that they will make some type of valid contribution to society whilst protecting on their own against their impairments or dilemmas which were the consequence of their disability (Beith et al, 2008; Hedlund, 2009). Labelling of this type always been found in the Education Act of 1944. The handicapped were grouped in 11 distinct categories by health practitioners who used «  »… pseudo diagnostic labels such as ‘educationally subnormal' » » (Topping and Maloney, 2005, p.3) within their information of each and every category. Whilst this Act ensured that people who’d any form of disability were eligible to special education, it did label them as ‘suffering.’

This model was the main topic of criticism resulting from its emphasis upon the person together with dilemmas which they face, instead of considering their abilities and what they are able to do in spite of their difficulties. It precludes any consideration, because of a ‘diagnosis’, of an individual’s prospective, and highlights society’s shortcomings with regard to providing opportunities for individuals who have any form of disability.

Social

The move towards challenging these long-held a few ideas was included with a shift into the focus of attention from a deficit viewpoint to at least one of centering on «  »… social oppression, cultural discourse, and environmental barriers » » (Shakespeare, 2006, p. 197). In britain, the social style of disability has provided an analysis of this social exclusion of disabled people (Hasler, 1993), using this model developing from the work of this Union of Physically Impaired Against Segregation [UPIAS]. The expressed aim of the group was to make certain that you aren’t any form of impairment be afforded the opportunity to live separately also to have control of these own everyday lives through to be able to be involved in, and subscribe to, society. In conjunction with the pressure placed upon government by the Liberation Network of People with Disabilities, the British Council for Disabled People had been established in 1981.

The first challenge for the UPIAS was to redefine disability. They argued that disability had been a thing that had been imposed upon them, as well as their impairments, due to their denial of access to full and meaningful participation in society. This designed, in terms of they certainly were concerned, that disabled people were being oppressed (UPIAS, 1975). They defined disability as «  »… the disadvantage or restriction of activity the effect of a contemporary social organisation which takes minimum account of people who have physical impairments and so excludes them from participation into the main-stream of social activities » » (UPIAS, 1975 cited in Shakespeare, 2006, p. 198). You should recognise that numerous supporters of this social model attest towards the accuracy and legitimacy of this statements and views that have been manufactured by the UPIAS, in today’s socio-political weather (Shakespeare, 2006).

with regards to education, the original impact of this social model had been noticed in the Warnock Report (1978), which fashioned might maxims of this 1981 Education Act. Warnock’s document considered a kid’s individual needs whilst still providing general classifications covering their unique issues and complications. Learning dilemmas were partioned into four categories – mild, moderate, severe and certain – with these being advised so that you can help inform educators and regional Education Authorities (LEA) as to the most readily useful method of supporting young ones through the educative process. This aspect of the report had been critical in that it claimed that most young ones with SEN would need to be identified and provided for in main-stream schools. Also, the Warnock Report (1978) advertised that up to 20% of all young ones would require some kind of support in their time at school, ergo the increased exposure of the implementation and track of the 200+ tips contained within it.

The Education Act (1981) was a watershed with regards to providing a definition for special needs. This were thought as «  »a learning difficulty which demands special educational provision to be manufactured » » (Education Act, 1981, 1.1). Special educational provision had been thought as learning opportunities that were arranged besides the activities given by the LEA. This Act placed the obligation for the education of the with special needs in the hands of main-stream schools, who have been to be given additional help via additional monies and/or materials and support (personnel) through Statements of Special Educational Need.

The potency of this model is in its ease – it really is easily explained and comprehended, and creates debate in addition to demanding social change. Through this debate, it identifies lots of the social barriers which have to be removed, with Oliver (2004) commenting it is not simply a theory but an effective tool with which to create change. This is a model which focuses upon social oppression as well as the moral obligation of society to improve itself, to ensure that disabled folks are able to engage more with it. In addition, the social model has had a positive affect the self-esteem of disabled people makes it possible for them to produce a personal contribution to society.

Its weaknesses are the undeniable fact that there is absolutely no acknowledgement that an individual’s impairment comes with an effect on a disabled man or woman’s life. In addition, it generates a clear distinction between the impairment (medical) itself and disability (social), the differences between which are more difficult to differentiate in actual life. The style also doesn’t recognise that, no matter how much change is initiated, a barrier-free life for those who are disabled is impossible to put into operation in its entirety; as an example, every person needs to manage to read and write to a certain degree so they are able to be involved in every day life (Shakespeare, 2006).

Learning Issues, Strategies and Inclusion

The following section aims to discuss learning dilemmas so that you can supply a better comprehension of a number of the difficulties faced by individuals who have special needs and how educators support them within their development and learning.

Employing different and/or separate methods with SEN pupils ensures that they have equality of opportunity (Equality Act, 2010) towards the curriculum which promotes an even more inclusive environment into the sense they are able to access similar material as their peers, albeit in a slightly modified type. Different approaches allow young ones to produce their communication and connection skills, which are enhanced when you’re in main-stream education. The inclusion of the with learning dilemmas in main-stream schools provide opportunities for improvements to be made out of their social skills – the other young ones also reap the benefits of connection with people who have dilemmas, in that they could produce a sense of empathy because of their dilemmas and embrace their differences which promotes a sense of unity and equality. It should additionally be noted that numerous of this approaches which is often adopted with SEN pupils could also be used to good effect with other students.

The drive for inclusion of all of the young ones is evidenced within documents created by the DfE as well as the Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted). The DfE (2014) especially suggest that teachers should, in every their dealings with pupils, know about the equal opportunities legislation which covers battle, sex, disability, belief or religion, sexual orientation, gender reassignment, and pregnancy and maternity. It has in addition recently updated the SEN Code of Practice (DfE/DoH, 2015) to make sure that all young ones and teenagers gain access to the support they might need from their early childhood right through until the age of 25, which also provides links towards the young ones and Families Act (2014) as well as the Special Needs and Disability Regulations (2014). Ofsted make its contribution through ensuring, as an element of their assessment of schools, that the needs of those designated as having SEN are now being met, inclusive of situation studies involving pupils with disabilities and SEN. Plainly, there exists a commitment to providing the most readily useful possible come from life for individuals who experience learning difficulties of any type.

This commitment also also includes placing individuals who have special needs into the correct destination: you won’t continually be the truth that their needs are best met through mainstream schooling through limitations in budget, staffing plus the physical environment. Where ones own condition is specially severe or requires more expert support, provision in just a special school might be much more appropriate for them. Inclusive practice involves finding appropriate solutions for every single individual pupil, by treating them as a person and placing them in the middle of this educative process.

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